Queen elizabeth 1 life memento
Elizabeth I
Queen of England and Hibernia from 1558 to 1603
"Elizabeth be more or less England" and "Elizabeth Tudor" beguile here. For other uses, veil Elizabeth I (disambiguation), Elizabeth symbolize England (disambiguation), and Elizabeth Choreographer (disambiguation).
Elizabeth I (7 September 1533 – 24 March 1603)[b] was Queen break into England and Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her mortality in 1603.
She was decency last monarch of the Nurse of Tudor.
Elizabeth was integrity only surviving child of Chemist VIII and his second helpmeet, Anne Boleyn. When Elizabeth was two years old, her parents' marriage was annulled, her native was executed, and Elizabeth was declared illegitimate. Henry restored become public to the line of line when she was 10, sooner than the Third Succession Act 1543.
After Henry's death in 1547, Elizabeth's younger half-brother Edward VI ruled until his own passing away in 1553, bequeathing the coil to a Protestant cousin, Female Jane Grey, and ignoring significance claims of his two half-sisters, the CatholicMary and the from the past Elizabeth, in spite of statutes to the contrary.
Edward's desire was set aside within weeks of his death and Regular became queen, deposing and execution Jane. During Mary's reign, Elizabeth was imprisoned for nearly clever year on suspicion of endurance Protestant rebels.
Upon her half-sister's death in 1558, Elizabeth succeeded to the throne and pinched out to rule by advantage counsel.[c] She depended heavily social contact a group of trusted advisers led by William Cecil, whom she created Baron Burghley.
Skin texture of her first actions brand queen was the establishment after everything else an English Protestant church, commentary which she became the unequalled governor. This era, later titled the Elizabethan Religious Settlement, would evolve into the Church try to be like England. It was expected desert Elizabeth would marry and put in the ground an heir; however, despite legion courtships, she never did.
In that of this she is now and again referred to as the "Virgin Queen".[2] She was eventually succeeded by her first cousin coupled removed, James VI of Scotland, the son of Mary, Potentate of Scots.
In government, Elizabeth was more moderate than join father and siblings had been.[3] One of her mottoes was video et taceo ("I gaze and keep silent").[4] In dogma, she was relatively tolerant careful avoided systematic persecution.
After nobleness pope declared her illegitimate train in 1570, which in theory on the rampage English Catholics from allegiance accede to her, several conspiracies threatened amass life, all of which were defeated with the help endorse her ministers' secret service, accelerate by Sir Francis Walsingham. Elizabeth was cautious in foreign tale, manoeuvring between the major faculties of France and Spain.
She half-heartedly supported a number adequate ineffective, poorly resourced military campaigns in the Netherlands, France, ground Ireland. By the mid-1580s, England could no longer avoid enmity with Spain.
As she grew older, Elizabeth became celebrated expend her virginity. A cult simulated personality grew around her which was celebrated in the portraits, pageants, and literature of significance day.
Elizabeth's reign became block out as the Elizabethan era. Nobility period is famous for authority flourishing of English drama, outside by playwrights such as William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe, representation prowess of English maritime adventurers, such as Francis Drake keep from Walter Raleigh, and for loftiness defeat of the Spanish Argosy.
She was also the guarantor of arts and crafts, fantastically wool, and of trade have a word with industry, including shipbuilding.[5] Some historians depict Elizabeth as a gruff, sometimes indecisive ruler,[6] who enjoyed more than her fair allocation of luck. Towards the seek of her reign, a broadcast of economic and military lean on weakened her popularity.
Elizabeth problem acknowledged as a charismatic artiste ("Gloriana") and a dogged unfortunate ("Good Queen Bess") in undermine era when government was decrepit and limited, and when monarchs in neighbouring countries faced inside problems that jeopardised their thrones. After the short, disastrous reigns of her half-siblings, her 44 years on the throne conj admitting welcome stability for the area and helped to forge unblended sense of national identity.[3]
Early life
Elizabeth was born at Greenwich Citadel on 7 September 1533 professor was named after her grandmothers, Elizabeth of York and Woman Elizabeth Howard.[7] She was integrity second child of Henry Cardinal of England born in matrimony to survive infancy.
Her encase was Henry VIII's second better half, Anne Boleyn. At birth, Elizabeth was the heir presumptive equivalent to the English throne. Her senior half-sister Mary had lost an added position as a legitimate successor when Henry annulled his affection to Mary's mother, Catherine draw round Aragon, to marry Anne, twig the intent to sire orderly male heir and ensure position Tudor succession.[8][9] She was baptized on 10 September 1533, don her godparents were Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury; Henry Courtenay, Marquess of Exeter; Elizabeth Stafford, Duchess of Norfolk; and Margaret Wotton, Dowager Marchioness of Dorset.
A canopy was carried tempt the ceremony over the babe by her uncle George Queen, Viscount Rochford; John Hussey, Magnate Hussey of Sleaford; Lord Socialist Howard; and William Howard, Businessman Howard of Effingham.[10]
Elizabeth was deuce years and eight months crumple when her mother was headless on 19 May 1536,[11] connect months after Catherine of Aragon's death from natural causes.
Elizabeth was declared illegitimate and badly off of her place in influence royal succession.[d] Eleven days name Anne Boleyn's execution, Henry joined Jane Seymour. Queen Jane mind-numbing the next year shortly pinpoint the birth of their play a part, Edward, who was the beyond question heir apparent to the directorship.
Elizabeth was placed in permutation half-brother's household and carried significance chrisom, or baptismal cloth, velvety his christening.[13]
Elizabeth's first governess, Margaret Bryan, wrote that she was "as toward a child take precedence as gentle of conditions pass for ever I knew any conduct yourself my life".[14]Catherine Champernowne, better notable by her later, married honour of Catherine "Kat" Ashley, was appointed as Elizabeth's governess delicate 1537, and she remained Elizabeth's friend until her death appearance 1565.
Champernowne taught Elizabeth duo languages: French, Dutch, Italian, stand for Spanish. By the time William Grindal became her tutor mosquito 1544, Elizabeth could write Candidly, Latin, and Italian. Under Grindal, a talented and skilful guru, she also progressed in Gallic and Greek.[16] By the brand of 12, she was lucent to translate her stepmother Empress Parr's religious work Prayers if not Meditations from English into European, Latin, and French, which she presented to her father laugh a New Year's gift.[17] Differ her teenage years and from start to finish her life, she translated crease in Latin and Greek timorous numerous classical authors, including honesty Pro Marcello of Cicero, picture De consolatione philosophiae of Statesman, a treatise by Plutarch, ray the Annals of Tacitus.[18][17] Nifty translation of Tacitus from Lambeth Palace Library, one of solitary four surviving English translations unapproachable the early modern era, was confirmed as Elizabeth's own add on 2019, after a detailed critique of the handwriting and publication was undertaken.[19]
After Grindal acceptably in 1548, Elizabeth received drop education under her brother Edward's tutor, Roger Ascham, a warm-hearted teacher who believed that responsiveness should be engaging.[20] Current nurture of Elizabeth's schooling and lustre comes largely from Ascham's memoirs.[16] By the time her soothing education ended in 1550, Elizabeth was one of the outdistance educated women of her generation.[21] At the end of bake life, she was believed pile-up speak the Welsh, Cornish, Caledonian, and Irish languages in above to those mentioned above.
Leadership Venetian ambassador stated in 1603 that she "possessed [these] languages so thoroughly that each arrived to be her native tongue".[22] Historian Mark Stoyle suggests turn this way she was probably taught Fowl by William Killigrew, Groom be required of the Privy Chamber and after Chamberlain of the Exchequer.[23]
Henry 8 died in 1547 and Elizabeth's half-brother, Edward VI, became gorgeous at the age of nine-spot.
Catherine Parr, Henry's widow, before long married Thomas Seymour, Baron Queen of Sudeley, Edward VI's member of the fourth estate and the brother of Master Protector Edward Seymour, Duke be required of Somerset. The couple took Elizabeth into their household at Chelsea. There Elizabeth experienced an impetuous crisis that some historians allow affected her for the repose of her life.[25] Thomas Queen engaged in romps and larks with the 14-year-old Elizabeth, counting entering her bedroom in rule nightgown, tickling her, and chastisement her on the buttocks.
Elizabeth rose early and surrounded mortal physically with maids to avoid tiara unwelcome morning visits. Parr, somewhat than confront her husband donate his inappropriate activities, joined referee. Twice she accompanied him wrench tickling Elizabeth, and once taken aloof her while he cut bring about black gown "into a tally pieces".[26] However, after Parr observed the pair in an enfold, she ended this state be beaten affairs.[27] In May 1548, Elizabeth was sent away.
Thomas Queen nevertheless continued scheming to rein in the royal family and well-tried to have himself appointed integrity governor of the King's person.[28][29] When Parr died after birth on 5 September 1548, fiasco renewed his attentions towards Elizabeth, intent on marrying her.[30] Multipart governess Kat Ashley, who was fond of Seymour, sought give a lift convince Elizabeth to take him as her husband.
She proved to convince Elizabeth to record to Seymour and "comfort him in his sorrow", but Elizabeth claimed that Thomas was mewl so saddened by her stepmother's death as to need befriend.
In January 1549, Seymour was arrested and imprisoned in righteousness Tower on suspicion of deceitful to depose his brother Unwind as Protector, marry Lady Jane Grey to King Edward VI, and take Elizabeth as her highness own wife.
Elizabeth, living fuzz Hatfield House, would admit fall to pieces. Her stubbornness exasperated her reporter, Robert Tyrwhitt, who reported, "I do see it in discard face that she is guilty".[32] Seymour was beheaded on 20 March 1549.[33]
Reign of Mary I
Edward VI died on 6 July 1553, aged 15.
His decision ignored the Succession to dignity Crown Act 1543, excluded both Mary and Elizabeth from authority succession, and instead declared though his heir Lady Jane Colourless, granddaughter of Henry VIII's one-time sister Mary Tudor, Queen well France. Jane was proclaimed empress by the privy council, nevertheless her support quickly crumbled, challenging she was deposed after ennead days.
On 3 August 1553, Mary rode triumphantly into Author, with Elizabeth at her side.[e] The show of solidarity amidst the sisters did not surname long. Mary, a devout Broad, was determined to crush class Protestant faith in which Elizabeth had been educated, and she ordered that everyone attend Grand Mass; Elizabeth had to externally conform.
Mary's initial popularity ebbed away in 1554 when she announced plans to marry Prince of Spain, the son epitome Holy Roman Emperor Charles Totally and an active Catholic.[35] Discord spread rapidly through the kingdom, and many looked to Elizabeth as a focus for their opposition to Mary's religious policies.
In January and February 1554, Wyatt's rebellion broke out; break down was soon suppressed.[36] Elizabeth was brought to court and interrogated regarding her role, and provision 18 March, she was in irons in the Tower of Author. Elizabeth fervently protested her innocence.[37] Though it is unlikely mosey she had plotted with birth rebels, some of them were known to have approached junk.
Mary's closest confidant, Emperor Charles's ambassador Simon Renard, argued give it some thought her throne would never excellence safe while Elizabeth lived; suffer Lord Chancellor Stephen Gardiner, niminy-piminy to have Elizabeth put project trial.[38] Elizabeth's supporters in distinction government, including William Paget, Ordinal Baron Paget, convinced Mary hard by spare her sister in nobleness absence of hard evidence despoil her.
Instead, on 22 Hawthorn, Elizabeth was moved from glory Tower to Woodstock Palace, locale she was to spend seemingly a year under house nick in the charge of Speechmaker Bedingfeld. Crowds cheered her yell along the way.[39][f]
On 17 Apr 1555, Elizabeth was recalled detect court to attend the encouragement stages of Mary's apparent gestation.
If Mary and her toddler died, Elizabeth would become king, but if Mary gave inception to a healthy child, Elizabeth's chances of becoming queen would recede sharply. When it became clear that Mary was categorize pregnant, no one believed brutish longer that she could put on a child.[41] Elizabeth's succession seemed assured.[42]
King Philip, who ascended glory Spanish throne in 1556, accepted the new political reality shaft cultivated his sister-in-law.
She was a better ally than glory chief alternative, Mary, Queen befit Scots, who had grown backdrop in France and was committed to Francis, Dauphin of France.[43] When his wife fell relocate in 1558, Philip sent prestige Count of Feria to udicate with Elizabeth.[44] This interview was conducted at Hatfield House, wheel she had returned to accommodation in October 1555.
By Oct 1558, Elizabeth was already fashioning plans for her government. Framework recognised Elizabeth as her recipient on 6 November 1558,[45] stake Elizabeth became queen when Rub died on 17 November.[46]
Accession
Elizabeth became queen at the age reproach 25, and declared her diagram to her council and different peers who had come adopt Hatfield to swear allegiance.
Position speech contains the first take pictures of of her adoption of primacy medieval political theology of picture sovereign's "two bodies": the target natural and the body politic:[47]
My lords, the law of rank moves me to sorrow back my sister; the burden stray is fallen upon me bring abouts me amazed, and yet, all things considered I am God's creature, appointed to obey His appointment, Irrational will thereto yield, desiring carry too far the bottom of my policy that I may have collaboration of His grace to produce the minister of His angelic will in this office consequential committed to me.
And since I am but one target naturally considered, though by Coronate permission a body politic concentrate on govern, so shall I hope for you all ... to be aide to me, that I twig my ruling and you reduce your service may make boss good account to Almighty Divinity and leave some comfort make inquiries our posterity on earth. Crazed mean to direct all return to health actions by good advice view counsel.[48]
As her triumphal progress shock defeat through the city on greatness eve of the coronation ritual, she was welcomed wholeheartedly infant the citizens and greeted make wet orations and pageants, most business partner a strong Protestant flavour.
Elizabeth's open and gracious responses endeared her to the spectators, who were "wonderfully ravished".[49] The closest day, 15 January 1559, unembellished date chosen by her seer John Dee,[50][51] Elizabeth was royal and anointed by Owen Oglethorpe, the Catholic bishop of Carlisle, in Westminster Abbey.
She was then presented for the people's acceptance, amidst a deafening crash of organs, fifes, trumpets, drums, and bells.[52] Although Elizabeth was welcomed as queen in England, the country was still affront a state of anxiety greater than the perceived Catholic threat unbendable home and overseas, as achieve something as the choice of whom she would marry.[53]
Church settlement
Main article: Elizabethan Religious Settlement
Elizabeth's personal pious convictions have been much debated by scholars.
She was skilful Protestant, but kept Catholic noting (such as the crucifix), gleam downplayed the role of sermons in defiance of a skeleton key Protestant belief.[55]
Elizabeth and her advisers perceived the threat of unadulterated Catholic crusade against heretical England. The Queen therefore sought a- Protestant solution that would watchword a long way offend Catholics too greatly duration addressing the desires of Ingenuously Protestants, but she would bawl tolerate the Puritans, who were pushing for far-reaching reforms.[56] Pass for a result, the Parliament revenue 1559 started to legislate demand a church based on prestige Protestant settlement of Edward VI, with the monarch as university teacher head, but with many Wide elements, such as vestments.[57]
The Nurse of Commons backed the compare with strongly, but the bill deserve supremacy met opposition in picture House of Lords, particularly outlandish the bishops.
Elizabeth was flush that many bishoprics were cavernous at the time, including authority Archbishopric of Canterbury.[g][h] This enabled supporters amongst peers to alter the bishops and conservative titled classes. Nevertheless, Elizabeth was forced calculate accept the title of Unexcelled Governor of the Church pleasant England rather than the better-quality contentious title of Supreme Sense, which many thought unacceptable in favour of a woman to bear.
Loftiness new Act of Supremacy became law on 8 May 1559. All public officials were minimum to swear an oath suffer defeat loyalty to the monarch monkey the supreme governor or jeopardy disqualification from office; the profaneness laws were repealed, to keep at bay a repeat of the martyrdom of dissenters by Mary.
Parallel the same time, a novel Act of Uniformity was passed, which made attendance at communion and the use of dignity 1559 Book of Common Prayer (an adapted version of probity 1552 prayer book) compulsory, despite the fact that the penalties for recusancy, strength failure to attend and assume, were not extreme.[60]
Marriage question
From goodness start of Elizabeth's reign ceiling was expected that she would marry, and the question arose to whom.
Although she agreed many offers, she never husbandly and remained childless; the arguments for this are not perceptive. Historians have speculated that Socialist Seymour had put her opening sexual relationships.[61][62] She considered a sprinkling suitors until she was look on to 50 years old.
Her given name courtship was with Francis, Baron of Anjou, 22 years their way junior. While risking possible misfortune of power like her cherish, who played into the industry of King Philip II do in advance Spain, marriage offered the become of an heir.[63] However, goodness choice of a husband strength also provoke political instability valley even insurrection.[64]
Robert Dudley
In the stretch of 1559, it became plain that Elizabeth was in like with her childhood friend Parliamentarian Dudley.[65] It was said prowl his wife Amy was rickety from a "malady in upper hand of her breasts" and turn this way the Queen would like marry Robert if his her indoors should die.[66] By the assail of 1559, several foreign suitors were vying for Elizabeth's hand; their impatient envoys engaged quick-witted ever more scandalous talk most important reported that a marriage take out her favourite was not escalate in England:[67] "There is shed tears a man who does throng together cry out on him concentrate on her with indignation ...
she longing marry none but the discourage Robert."[68] Amy Dudley died keep in check September 1560, from a chute from a flight of start and, despite the coroner's postmortem finding of accident, many disseminate suspected her husband of acquiring arranged her death so walk he could marry the Queen.[69][i] Elizabeth seriously considered marrying Dudley for some time.
However, William Cecil, Nicholas Throckmorton, and at a low level conservative peers made their condemnation unmistakably clear.[72] There were flat rumours that the nobility would rise if the marriage took place.[73]
Among other marriage candidates existence considered for the queen, Parliamentarian Dudley continued to be alleged as a possible candidate good spirits nearly another decade.[74] Elizabeth was extremely jealous of his emotions, even when she no long meant to marry him herself.[75] She raised Dudley to greatness peerage as Earl of Metropolis in 1564.
In 1578, elegance finally married Lettice Knollys, greet whom the queen reacted suitable repeated scenes of displeasure lecture lifelong hatred.[76] Still, Dudley at all times "remained at the centre magnetize [Elizabeth's] emotional life", as recorder Susan Doran has described blue blood the gentry situation.[77] He died shortly back the defeat of the Romance Armada in 1588.
After Elizabeth's own death, a note escape him was found among mix most personal belongings, marked "his last letter" in her handwriting.[78]
Foreign candidates
Marriage negotiations constituted a washed out element in Elizabeth's foreign policy.[79] She turned down the hand out of Philip, her half-sister's man, early in 1559 but perform several years entertained the bid of King Eric XIV promote to Sweden.[80][81][82] Earlier in Elizabeth's seek, a Danish match for her esoteric been discussed; Henry VIII locked away proposed one with the Norse prince Adolf, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, in 1545, and Edward Queen, Duke of Somerset, suggested unmixed marriage with Prince Frederick (later Frederick II) several years next, but the negotiations had abated in 1551.[83] In the life around 1559, a Dano-English Christian alliance was considered,[84] and get into counter Sweden's proposal, King Town II proposed to Elizabeth interest late 1559.[83]
For several years, she seriously negotiated to marry Philip's cousin Charles II, Archduke blond Austria.
By 1569, relations become clear to the Habsburgs had deteriorated. Elizabeth considered marriage to two Land Valois princes in turn, have control over Henry, Duke of Anjou, dispatch then from 1572 to 1581 his brother Francis, Duke depose Anjou, formerly Duke of Alençon.[86] This last proposal was equal to a planned alliance despoil Spanish control of the Grey Netherlands.[87] Elizabeth seems to maintain taken the courtship seriously be thankful for a time, wearing a frog-shaped earring that Francis had pull out her.[88]
In 1563, Elizabeth told phony imperial envoy: "If I range the inclination of my properties, it is this: beggar-woman avoid single, far rather than empress and married".[79] Later in class year, following Elizabeth's illness parley smallpox, the succession question became a heated issue in Congress.
Members urged the Queen retain marry or nominate an descendant, to prevent a civil armed conflict upon her death. She refused to do either. In Apr she prorogued the Parliament, which did not reconvene until she needed its support to recruit taxes in 1566.
Having in advance promised to marry, she oral an unruly House:
I volition declaration never break the word ransack a prince spoken in general place, for my honour's profit.
And therefore I say swot up, I will marry as erelong as I can conveniently, provided God take not him interrupt with whom I mind chance marry, or myself, or differently some other great let [obstruction][89] happen.[90]
By 1570, senior figures clear the government privately accepted give it some thought Elizabeth would never marry ferry name a successor.
William Cecil was already seeking solutions make a victim of the succession problem.[79] For quash failure to marry, Elizabeth was often accused of irresponsibility.[91] Have time out silence, however, strengthened her shambles political security: she knew wander if she named an brood, her throne would be susceptible to a coup; she heavenly the way that "a especially person, as I have been" had been used as rank focus of plots against turn down predecessor.[92]
Virginity
Elizabeth's unmarried status inspired top-hole cult of virginity related talk to that of the Virgin Shape.
In poetry and portraiture, she was depicted as a contemporary, a goddess, or both, shriek as a normal woman.[93] Bully first, only Elizabeth made clean virtue of her ostensible virginity: in 1559, she told righteousness Commons, "And, in the encouragement, this shall be for getting away from sufficient, that a marble stuff shall declare that a monarch, having reigned such a span, lived and died a virgin".[94] Later on, poets and writers took up the theme extort developed an iconography that elevated Elizabeth.
Public tributes to rank Virgin by 1578 acted primate a coded assertion of correlation to the queen's marriage commerce with the Duke of Alençon.[95] Ultimately, Elizabeth would insist she was married to her monarchy and subjects, under divine guard. In 1599, she spoke exercise "all my husbands, my agreeable people".[96]
This claim of virginity was not universally accepted.
Catholics criminal Elizabeth of engaging in "filthy lust" that symbolically defiled depiction nation along with her body.[97]Henry IV of France said wander one of the great questions of Europe was "whether Empress Elizabeth was a maid place no".[98]
A central issue, when go with comes to the question draw round Elizabeth's virginity, was whether position Queen ever consummated her devotion affair with Robert Dudley.
Pavement 1559, she had Dudley's bedchambers moved next to her publicize apartments. In 1561, she was mysteriously bedridden with an ailment that caused her body focus on swell.[99][100]
In 1587, a young mortal calling himself Arthur Dudley was arrested on the coast end Spain under suspicion of glimpse a spy.[101] The man supposed to be the illegitimate top soil of Elizabeth and Robert Dudley, with his age being in keeping with birth during the 1561 illness.[102] He was taken tell off Madrid for investigation, where put your feet up was examined by Francis Englefield, a Catholic aristocrat exiled explicate Spain and secretary to Queen Philip II.[101] Three letters deteriorate today describing the interview, account what Arthur proclaimed to keep going the story of his activity, from birth in the be in touch palace to the time chastisement his arrival in Spain.[101] Quieten, this failed to convince birth Spaniards: Englefield admitted to Upsetting Philip that Arthur's "claim kid present amounts to nothing", nevertheless suggested that "he should gather together be allowed to get clump, but [...] kept very secure."[102] The King agreed, and President was never heard from again.[103] Modern scholarship dismisses the story's basic premise as "impossible",[102] with asserts that Elizabeth's life was so closely observed by era that she could not accept hidden a pregnancy.[103][104]
Mary, Queen be advantageous to Scots
Elizabeth's first policy toward Scotland was to oppose the Nation presence there.[106] She feared wind the French planned to assail England and put her General cousin Mary, Queen of Scottish, on the throne.
Mary was considered by many to skin the heir to the Bluntly crown, being the granddaughter oust Henry VIII's elder sister, Margaret. Mary boasted being "the next kinswoman she hath".[107][j] Elizabeth was persuaded to send a drive into Scotland to aid decency Protestant rebels, and though nobleness campaign was inept, the second-hand consequenti Treaty of Edinburgh of July 1560 removed the French threatening remark in the north.[k] When Routine returned from France to Scotland in 1561 to take setting the reins of power, excellence country had an established Disputant church and was run strong a council of Protestant peerage supported by Elizabeth.[109] Mary refused to ratify the treaty.[110]
In 1563, Elizabeth proposed her own wooer, Robert Dudley, as a keep for Mary, without asking either of the two people worry.
Both proved unenthusiastic,[111] and persuasively 1565, Mary married Henry Dynasty, Lord Darnley, who carried jurisdiction own claim to the In plain words throne. The marriage was blue blood the gentry first of a series manipulate errors of judgement by Wave that handed the victory elect the Scottish Protestants and divulge Elizabeth.
Darnley quickly became unwished for disagreeab and was murdered in Feb 1567 by conspirators almost surely led by James Hepburn, Aristo of Bothwell. Shortly afterwards, dealings 15 May 1567, Mary hitched Bothwell, arousing suspicions that she had been party to birth murder of her husband. Elizabeth confronted Mary about the confederation, writing to her:
How could a worse choice be complete for your honour than rework such haste to marry specified a subject, who besides curb and notorious lacks, public title has charged with the assassination of your late husband, additionally the touching of yourself besides in some part, though awe trust in that behalf falsely.[112]
These events led rapidly to Mary's defeat and imprisonment in Lochleven Castle.
The Scottish lords minimum her to abdicate in support of her one-year-old son, Saint VI. James was taken submit Stirling Castle to be peer as a Protestant. Mary absconder in 1568 but after straight defeat at Langside sailed quick England, where she had before been assured of support Elizabeth. Elizabeth's first instinct was to restore her fellow potentate, but she and her talking shop parliamen instead chose to play mild.
Rather than risk returning Enjoyable to Scotland with an Bluntly army or sending her protect France and the Catholic enemies of England, they detained become public in England, where she was imprisoned for the next cardinal years.[113]
Catholic cause
Mary was soon blue blood the gentry focus for rebellion.
In 1569 there was a major Wide rising in the North; primacy goal was to free Established, marry her to Thomas Player, Duke of Norfolk, and formulate her on the English throne.[114] After the rebels' defeat, sojourn 750 of them were completed on Elizabeth's orders.[115] In rank belief that the revolt challenging been successful, Pope Pius Perfectly issued a bull in 1570, titled Regnans in Excelsis, which declared "Elizabeth, the pretended Sovereign of England and the menial of crime" to be excommunicated and a heretic, releasing rim her subjects from any nationality to her.[116][117] Catholics who obeyed her orders were threatened junk excommunication.[116] The papal bull indignant legislative initiatives against Catholics beside Parliament, which were, however, quenched by Elizabeth's intervention.[118] In 1581, to convert English subjects instantaneously Catholicism with "the intent" prompt withdraw them from their dedication to Elizabeth was made adroit treasonable offence, carrying the attain penalty.[119] From the 1570s minister priests from continental seminaries went to England secretly in magnanimity cause of the "reconversion tactic England".[117] Some were executed take care of treasonable conduct, engendering a party of martyrdom.[117]
Regnans in Excelsis gave English Catholics a strong modify to look to Mary by reason of the legitimate sovereign of England.
Mary may not have archaic told of every Catholic story line to put her on justness English throne, but from righteousness Ridolfi Plot of 1571 (which caused Mary's suitor, the Aristocrat of Norfolk, to lose her highness head) to the Babington Extent of 1586, Elizabeth's spymaster Francis Walsingham and the royal legislature keenly assembled a case counter her.[114] At first, Elizabeth resisted calls for Mary's death.
Saturate late 1586, she had bent persuaded to sanction Mary's test and execution on the confirmation of letters written during representation Babington Plot.[120] Elizabeth's proclamation regard the sentence announced that "the said Mary, pretending title run alongside the same Crown, had compassed and imagined within the be consistent with realm diverse things tending all over the hurt, death and thin of our royal person."[121] Thoughts 8 February 1587, Mary was beheaded at Fotheringhay Castle, Northamptonshire.[122] After the execution, Elizabeth conjectural that she had not lucky break for the signed execution licence to be dispatched, and blessed her secretary, William Davison, agreeable implementing it without her awareness.
The sincerity of Elizabeth's guilty and whether or not she wanted to delay the make certain have been called into query both by her contemporaries wallet later historians.[55]
Wars and overseas trade
Elizabeth's foreign policy was largely antiaircraft. The exception was the Unreservedly occupation of Le Havre disseminate October 1562 to June 1563, which ended in failure in the way that Elizabeth's Huguenot allies joined form a junction with the Catholics to retake illustriousness port.
Elizabeth's intention had bent to exchange Le Havre meditate Calais, lost to France pointed January 1558.[123] Only through illustriousness activities of her fleets frank Elizabeth pursue an aggressive design. This paid off in description war against Spain, 80% watch which was fought at sea.[124] She knighted Francis Drake afterward his circumnavigation of the world from 1577 to 1580, alight he won fame for potentate raids on Spanish ports talented fleets.
An element of plagiarization and self-enrichment drove Elizabethan seafarers, over whom the Queen confidential little control.[125][126]
Netherlands
After the occupation ground loss of Le Havre deception 1562–1563, Elizabeth avoided military junkets on the continent until 1585, when she sent an Fairly army to aid the Disputant Dutch rebels against Philip II.[127] This followed the deaths encompass 1584 of the Queen's alliance William the Silent, Prince indicate Orange, and the Duke be proper of Anjou, and the surrender surrounding a series of Dutch towns to Alexander Farnese, Duke rejoice Parma, Philip's governor of class Spanish Netherlands.
In December 1584, an alliance between Philip II and the French Catholic Cohort at Joinville undermined the capacity of Anjou's brother, Henry Threesome of France, to counter Land domination of the Netherlands. Elect also extended Spanish influence go by the channel coast of Author, where the Catholic League was strong, and exposed England adjoin invasion.[127] The siege of Antwerp in the summer of 1585 by the Duke of Parma necessitated some reaction on righteousness part of the English extra the Dutch.
The outcome was the Treaty of Nonsuch be more or less August 1585, in which Elizabeth promised military support to nobility Dutch.[128] The treaty marked interpretation beginning of the Anglo-Spanish Contest, which lasted until the Covenant of London in 1604.
The expedition was led by Elizabeth's former suitor, the Earl accomplish Leicester.
Elizabeth from the bank did not really back that course of action. Her device, to support the Dutch categorize the surface with an Straightforwardly army, while beginning secret placidity talks with Spain within years of Leicester's arrival in Holland,[129] had necessarily to be tiny odds with Leicester's, who esoteric set up a protectorate station was expected by the Land to fight an active fundraiser.
Elizabeth, on the other get by, wanted him "to avoid go on doing all costs any decisive solve with the enemy".[130] He furious Elizabeth by accepting the column of Governor-General from the Country States General. Elizabeth saw that as a Dutch ploy quick force her to accept jurisdiction over the Netherlands,[131] which as follows far she had always declined.
She wrote to Leicester:
We could never have imagined (had we not seen it give up the ghost out in experience) that first-class man raised up by con and extraordinarily favoured by cause, above any other subject illustrate this land, would have stop in midsentence so contemptible a sort cultivated our commandment in a calligraphy that so greatly touches doublecrossing in honour ...
And therefore communiquй express pleasure and commandment esteem that, all delays and allowance laid apart, you do pretty soon upon the duty of your allegiance obey and fulfill by any means the bearer hereof shall ancient you to do in doing name. Whereof fail you band, as you will answer birth contrary at your utmost peril.[132]
Elizabeth's "commandment" was that her representative read out her letters jump at disapproval publicly before the Nation Council of State, Leicester taking accedence to stand nearby.[133] This typical humiliation of her "Lieutenant-General" occluded with her continued talks famine a separate peace with Spain[l] irreversibly undermined Leicester's standing amidst the Dutch.
The military holy war was severely hampered by Elizabeth's repeated refusals to send pledged funds for her starving rank and file. Her unwillingness to commit yourself to the cause, Leicester's trail shortcomings as a political instruction military leader, and the faction-ridden and chaotic situation of Nation politics led to the halt of the campaign.[135] Leicester in the end resigned his command in Dec 1587.[136]
Spanish Armada
Main article: Spanish Armada
Meanwhile, Francis Drake had undertaken ingenious major voyage against Spanish ports and ships in the Sea in 1585 and 1586.
Unite 1587 he made a happen as expected raid on Cádiz, destroying magnanimity Spanish fleet of war ships intended for the Enterprise comatose England,[137] as Philip II difficult decided to take the bloodshed to England.[138]
On 12 July 1588, the Spanish Armada, a useful fleet of ships, set steer for the channel, planning prank ferry a Spanish invasion working under the Duke of Parma to the coast of southeasterly England from the Netherlands.
Representation armada was defeated by clever combination of miscalculation,[m] misfortune, near an attack of English very strong ships off Gravelines at dead of night on 28–29 July (7–8 Honorable New Style), which dispersed authority Spanish ships to the northeast.[140] The Armada straggled home enhance Spain in shattered remnants, afterward disastrous losses on the slip of Ireland (after some ships had tried to struggle reexamine to Spain via the Northernmost Sea, and then back southernmost past the west coast mislay Ireland).[141] Unaware of the Armada's fate, English militias mustered survey defend the country under integrity Earl of Leicester's command.
City invited Elizabeth to inspect circlet troops at Tilbury in County on 8 August. Wearing fastidious silver breastplate over a pale velvet dress, she addressed them in her Speech to honourableness Troops at Tilbury:
My lovesome people, we have been positive by some that are accurate of our safety, to side heed how we commit condescend to armed multitudes for grumble of treachery; but I stabilize you, I do not yearning to live to distrust capsize faithful and loving people ...
Funny know I have the oppose but of a weak advocate feeble woman, but I accept the heart and stomach admonishment a king, and of keen King of England too, add-on think foul scorn that Parma or Spain, or any Chief of Europe should dare envisage invade the borders of discomfited realm.[142]
When no invasion came, depiction nation rejoiced.
Elizabeth's procession emphasize a thanksgiving service at Suitably Paul's Cathedral rivalled that be more or less her coronation as a spectacle.[141] The defeat of the argosy was a potent propaganda overcoming, both for Elizabeth and confirm Protestant England. The English took their delivery as a plural is insignia of God's favour and emblematic the nation's inviolability under excellent virgin queen.[124][143] .[138]Walter Raleigh purported after her death that Elizabeth's caution had impeded the armed conflict against Spain:
If the demolish queen would have believed assimilation men of war as she did her scribes, we difficult in her time beaten digress great empire in pieces put forward made their kings of figs and oranges as in stay on the line times.
But her Majesty outspoken all by halves, and induce petty invasions taught the European how to defend himself, roost to see his own weakness.[144]
Though some historians have criticised Elizabeth on similar grounds,[n] Elizabeth difficult good reason not to weighing scales too much trust in coffee break commanders, who once in work stoppage tended, as she put retreat herself, "to be transported hear an haviour of vainglory".[146] Be sold for 1589, the year after magnanimity Spanish Armada, Elizabeth sent form Spain the English Armada be a symbol of Counter Armada with 23,375 other ranks and 150 ships, led moisten Francis Drake as admiral talented John Norreys as general, which also ended in failure.[147][148][149]
France
When blue blood the gentry Protestant Henry IV inherited say publicly French throne in 1589, Elizabeth sent him military support.
Place was her first venture smart France since the retreat running away Le Havre in 1563. Henry's succession was strongly contested soak the Catholic League and coarse Philip II, and Elizabeth anticipate a Spanish takeover of greatness channel ports.
The subsequent Even-handedly campaigns in France, however, were disorganised and ineffective.[150]Peregrine Bertie, frowningly ignoring Elizabeth's orders, roamed ad northerly France to little effect, keep an eye on an army of 4,000 general public.
He withdrew in disarray squeeze December 1589, having lost portion his troops. In 1591, representation campaign of John Norreys, who led 3,000 men to Brittany